🔍 A worldwide scientific adventure
Since 1905, humanity has continually pushed the limits of static pressure — from 0.3 GPa with Bridgman's first apparatus[1] to over 500 GPa with toroidal cells today[15]. This is a story of brilliant tinkerers, lucky accidents, diamonds seized from smugglers, and fierce international competition to recreate Earth's interior conditions and beyond.
Diamond anvil cell — DAC © Wikipedia Commons
⚖
What is pressure?
Pressure is a force applied over a surface: P = F / A. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is ≈ 0.1 MPa = 0.0001 GPa. To generate extreme pressures, the strategy is simple: concentrate force onto a tiny area — the principle of a diamond anvil cell, with culets of 20 to 500 µm.[22]
Earth atmosphere
0.0001
GPa (1 atm)
Bicycle tyre (inflated)
~0.0008
GPa (8 bar)
Mariana Trench
0.11
GPa (~1 100 bar)
Earth's centre
~360
GPa (3.6 Mbar)
Jupiter's centre
~4 000
GPa (40 Mbar)
ⓘ 1 GPa = 10,000 bar = 10 kbar = 0.01 Mbar ≈ 9,870 atm
📜 A history of high pressure
From Torricelli's barometer to today's terapascal diamond cells — click any card to expand. French science (Pascal, Mariotte, Papin, Cailletet, Amagat, Loubeyre, Dewaele) runs right through the story.
1643
Mercury barometer — Evangelista Torricelli (Italy)
DiscoveryTorricelli's mercury column showed that the atmosphere exerts a real, measurable pressure, and produced the first sustained laboratory vacuum — the conceptual starting point of pressure science. The unit “torr” is named after him.
1648
Pascal's principle & the Puy-de-Dôme experiment — Blaise Pascal (France)
Science FRPascal established that pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in every direction — the principle behind every hydraulic press and pressure cell. His 1648 Puy-de-Dôme experiment proved that atmospheric pressure falls with altitude. The SI unit of pressure, the pascal, bears his name.
1654
Vacuum pump & the Magdeburg hemispheres — Otto von Guericke (Germany)
InventionVon Guericke built the first vacuum pump and dramatically demonstrated the force of atmospheric pressure: two teams of horses could not pull apart two evacuated copper hemispheres held together by air pressure alone.
1662
Boyle's law — Robert Boyle (Ireland / England)
DiscoveryBoyle showed that, at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (P × V = constant) — the first quantitative law linking pressure and volume, and a foundation of all later compression work.
1679
The Boyle–Mariotte law — Edme Mariotte (France)
Science FRIndependently of Boyle, Mariotte formulated the same pressure–volume relationship and stressed the constant-temperature condition. In French-language science the gas law is still known as Mariotte's law.
1679
The steam digester — Denis Papin (France)
Invention FRPapin's “digester” was the first vessel deliberately built to generate and contain elevated pressure, fitted with the first safety valve. It is the direct ancestor of the pressure cooker — and of every modern pressure vessel.
1762
Water is compressible — John Canton (England)
DiscoveryIn Experiments to Prove That Water is Not Incompressible (Phil. Trans., 1762), Canton gave the first careful demonstration that even liquids shrink under pressure — overturning the long-held belief that water could not be compressed.
1820
High-pressure water compression — Jacob Perkins (USA / England)
InventionPerkins built a compression machine — using a cannon as the pressure vessel — and a piezometer to measure how much water shrinks under very high pressure, alongside an experimental steam engine running near 140 atm.
1822
The critical point — Charles Cagniard de la Tour (France)
Science FRHeating fluids in sealed tubes, Cagniard de la Tour discovered the critical point — the temperature and pressure above which liquid and gas can no longer be distinguished — a key concept for matter under pressure.
1869
Critical temperature & continuity of states — Thomas Andrews (Ireland)
DiscoveryAndrews measured the critical temperature of carbon dioxide and demonstrated the continuous passage between the liquid and gaseous states — work that directly inspired the high-pressure isotherm studies of Amagat and the theory of van der Waals.
1877
First liquefaction of oxygen — Louis-Paul Cailletet (France)
Science FROn 2 December 1877 Cailletet liquefied oxygen for the first time, by suddenly expanding a strongly compressed, pre-cooled gas — uniting high pressure with low temperature and opening the field of cryogenics.
1869–93
Gases & liquids to ~3000 atmospheres — Émile Amagat (France)
Science FRAmagat pushed measurement far beyond the limit of glass tubes (~400 atm): with a free-piston hydraulic manometer — and experiments run down a coal mine — he charted the compressibility of gases and liquids up to about 3000 atmospheres. He is the direct experimental forerunner of Bridgman.
1905
Bridgman — self-tightening seal — Harvard — 0.3 → 10 GPa
InventionPercy Bridgman, 23, was studying optical phenomena under pressure when his apparatus broke. Repairing it, he conceived a seal design where the pressure itself tightens the seal[1]. This allowed him to reach 10 GPa, far beyond the 0.3 GPa of previous apparatus. He would publish over 260 papers and 13 books, almost always alone.[3]
1946
Nobel Prize in Physics — P.W. Bridgman
NobelAfter 40 years at Harvard, Bridgman received the Nobel Prize “for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made therewith in the field of high pressure physics”.[2] J. Robert Oppenheimer, director of the Manhattan Project, was one of his students.[3]
1954
First synthetic diamond — Tracy Hall (General Electric)
DiscoveryGeneral Electric hired Bridgman as a consultant — he had attempted synthesis without success. Tracy Hall redesigned the press and produced the first synthetic diamond on 16 December 1954. GE patented the process. Hall's reward: a $10 savings bond.[3]
1957–1958
Invention of the DAC — NBS Washington & U. Chicago
InventionCharles Weir (NBS) handbuilt the first cell using a lathe, drill press and hacksaw.[4] Diamonds came from customs seizures. Van Valkenburg looked through the cell under a polarising microscope and saw coloured fringes — pressure was visible for the first time.[5] Simultaneously, Jamieson & Lawson at Chicago built a similar cell but passed X-rays through the sides — without looking through — which cost them credit for the invention.[5]
1962–1963
Metallic gasket & first liquids under pressure
InventionVan Valkenburg placed a thin perforated metal foil between the two anvils, enabling confinement of liquids under hydrostatic conditions.[7] In 1963, he was the first to observe water and alcohol crystallising under pressure.[22] The gasket (typically rhenium or tungsten) remains a fundamental component of every DAC.
Van Valkenburg directly observed water and alcohol crystallising in the DAC — demonstrating the potential of in situ optical observation.
NBS developed methodology for powder X-ray diffraction (1960) then single-crystal (1964–65) in the DAC — opening access to atomic structure of materials under pressure.
1966–1968
First laser heating — Bassett & Takahashi — graphite converted to diamond
InnovationThe idea came from Taro Takahashi over lunch in 1966: focus a laser beam through one of the diamond anvils to heat the sample while under pressure. In 1968, Bassett and Takahashi succeeded — a pulsed ruby laser converted graphite to diamond inside the cell.[8] Ming & Bassett later quantified the technique (1974): 2,000°C sustained (YAG laser) and 3,000°C pulsed, at pressures up to 260 kbar. This enabled, for the first time, simultaneous high pressure and high temperature — essential to model Earth's interior.
1971–1972
Measurement revolution — ruby fluorescence pressure scale (NBS)
MeasurementForman, Piermarini, Barnett and Block (NBS) discovered that the ruby fluorescence wavelength shifts reproducibly with pressure.[9] A laser and spectrometer replaced 15 hours of X-ray diffraction per measurement. This invention democratised high-pressure research worldwide. Mao, Xu & Bell extended the scale to 800 kbar in 1986.[12]
1975–1976
1 Mbar — Mao & Bell (Carnegie Institution)
RecordIron phase transitions at high pressure are studied in the DAC — fundamental for modelling Earth's dynamo and the solid inner core. Bassett, Yagi et al. at Cornell contribute key measurements.
1984
2.8 Mbar — Bell, Mao, Goettel
RecordNew world record: 2.8 Mbar (280 GPa), achieved using a beveled anvil geometry reducing stress concentrations at the culet edges.[11]
1985
First H measurements at megabar — Hemley & Mao (Carnegie)
DiscoveryRussell Hemley and Ho-Kwang Mao developed techniques to study hydrogen at megabar pressures using optical methods in the DAC.[28] This work opened 40 years of intensive research on hydrogen metallisation.
1987
Ice compressed into the megabar range — 128 GPa (1.28 Mbar) — Hemley, Mao et al.
DiscoveryUsing synchrotron X-ray diffraction, Hemley, Mao et al. compressed H₂O ice to 128 GPa (1.28 Mbar) — the first time ice reached the megabar range — and determined its structure (oxygen sublattice) and equation of state.[32] Direct evidence for symmetric-hydrogen-bond ice X came later, by infrared spectroscopy (Goncharov et al., 1996).
1988
H₂ structure at 26.5 GPa — start of the metallic hydrogen quest
Discovery1995
Metallisation of solid oxygen at 96 GPa
DiscoveryAkahama, Kawamura et al. (Japan) observed a structural transition in oxygen associated with metallisation at 96 GPa — resulting in a red colour and metallic properties (optical metallisation first reported by Desgreniers, Vohra & Ruoff in 1990). Oxygen would later be found superconducting (Eremets, 1998).
First synchrotron X-ray diffraction study of hydrogen at megabar. Structure remains hexagonal close-packed (hcp) — Nature 383, 702. Foundation for hydrogen metallisation studies.
1998
Superconductivity in solid oxygen — Shimizu, Eremets et al.
DiscoveryShimizu, Eremets and colleagues (Japan / Max Planck) discovered superconductivity in elemental oxygen under pressure.[26] This discovery surprised the community: oxygen, insulating at ambient pressure, becomes superconducting under high pressure. Eremets became a major figure in European high-pressure physics — he joined the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz in 2001.
2002
Black hydrogen at 320 GPa — Loubeyre, Occelli, LeToullec (CEA)
Science FRPaul Loubeyre and colleagues at CEA (Bruyères-le-Châtel) pushed the optical study of solid hydrogen to 320 GPa.[14] They observed progressive electronic gap closure and coined the term “black hydrogen”. Their work established that metallisation should occur around 460 GPa, revising earlier estimates upward.
Mikhail Eremets (Max Planck) synthesised the first fully polymeric form of nitrogen at 110 GPa and 2,000 K in a laser-heated DAC.[25] This “cubic gauche” (cg-N) phase is as hard as diamond and is a potential high-energy-density material — published in Nature Materials. Eremets joined the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry (Mainz) in 2001, where he led major discoveries.
2009
Transparent sodium under pressure — «anti-Wilson»
DiscoveryMa, Eremets et al. (Max Planck / Stony Brook): sodium, a prototype metal at ambient pressure, becomes a transparent insulator at ~200 GPa. Violating a century-old principle (metals become more metallic under pressure), this "anti-Wilson" phenomenon reveals the complexity of high-density matter — Nature 458, 182.
2015
Superconductivity at 203 K in H₃S at 150 GPa — absolute record
DiscoveryNatalia Dubrovinskaia and Leonid Dubrovinsky (University of Bayreuth, Germany) developed the double-stage cell with polycrystalline nanodiamond microballs as secondary anvils. In 2016, in experiments at the Advanced Photon Source (Argonne), they surpassed 1 TPa = 10 Mbar in static pressure — the first crossing of the terapascal threshold, three times Earth's core pressure.[24] This team corresponds to “Dubrovinsky” in the literature.
Dubrovinskaia et al. — Science Advances 2(7), e1600341 (2016)
2018
Toroidal T-DAC cell — Dewaele, Loubeyre et al. (CEA) — 600 GPa
Invention FRThe CEA team developed the toroidal diamond anvil cell (T-DAC): the culet is shaped as a doughnut with a central dome.[15] At high pressure the material deforms without breaking. This geometry enables controlled pressures beyond 400 GPa, opening the way for studying metallic hydrogen reproducibly. Maximum pressure reached: ~600 GPa.[15]
2018
400 GPa — Mao team (HPSTAR, Shanghai)
Record2020
H₂ metallisation at 425 GPa — Loubeyre, Occelli, Dumas / CEA & SOLEIL
Science FRPaul Loubeyre and Florent Occelli (CEA DAM) — internationally recognised specialists in high-pressure cell design and optimisation — collaborated with Paul Dumas (CNRS / Synchrotron SOLEIL) to observe the transition of hydrogen to its metallic state.[16][23] Using the T-DAC (capable of ~600 GPa[15]) and synchrotron infrared spectroscopy at SOLEIL, they observed at 425 GPa a complete absorption of infrared and visible light — the signature of a conducting material. This result, published in Nature, is the first direct observation consistent with theoretical predictions on molecular metallic hydrogen.
2026
Spectroscopic limits of anvils to 520 GPa — Hilberer, Loubeyre et al. (CEA)
Science FRHilberer, Loubeyre et al. (CEA / Univ. Paris-Saclay) published a systematic study of diamond anvil optical absorption up to 520 GPa.[20] They established the operational spectroscopic limits of DACs at very high pressure — results that directly constrain recent claims on hydrogen metallisation and refine the Raman pressure scale.
🧑🔬
Pioneers
🖉
Percy Williams Bridgman
1882–1961, Cambridge MA — Harvard
Father of high-pressure physics
▼
P.W. Bridgman
© Library of Congress
© Library of Congress
A solitary worker, Bridgman published over 260 papers and 13 books, almost always alone.[3] His self-tightening seal (1905)[1] transformed access to high pressures. Oppenheimer, future director of the Manhattan Project, was his student. Suffering from bone cancer, he ended his own life in August 1961 — his posthumous note became a reference in debates on assisted dying.[3]
🔬
Alvin Van Valkenburg & Charles E. Weir
NBS (NIST) Washington
Inventors of the first DAC
▼
Weir physically built the cell using available laboratory tools.[4][6] Van Valkenburg had the decisive insight: looking through the cell under a polarising microscope, he saw coloured fringes and understood that pressure was visible[5] — giving the DAC its decisive advantage over every other technique. Van Valkenburg later invented the metallic gasket[7] and was the first to observe liquids crystallising under pressure.[22]
👑
Ho-Kwang “Dave” Mao
Born 1941, Shanghai — Carnegie → HPSTAR
The King of the Megabar
▼
Over 30 years at the Carnegie Institution (Washington), now director of HPSTAR (Shanghai). With Peter Bell, he surpassed 1 Mbar in 1975[10] and 2.8 Mbar in 1984.[11] His ruby calibration scale (1986)[12] is the universal reference, cited over 3,900 times. He reached 400 GPa in 2018.[19] Two minerals bear his name: Davemaoite and Maohokite.[21]
🏭
Paul Loubeyre
CEA DAM DIF, Arpajon — Univ. Paris-Saclay
Inventor of the T-DAC — Hydrogen metallisation
▼
CEA physicist, internationally recognised specialist in high-pressure cells and dense hydrogen. In 2002, with Occelli & LeToullec, he studied solid H to 320 GPa and identified “black hydrogen”.[14] In 2018, he co-developed the toroidal cell (T-DAC) capable of exceeding 600 GPa.[15] In 2020, with Occelli and Paul Dumas (SOLEIL), he observed the metallisation of hydrogen at 425 GPa by synchrotron IR spectroscopy — published in Nature.[16][23] In 2026, his team published the spectroscopic limits of anvils to 520 GPa.[20]
🔥
William A. Bassett
Cornell University
Laser heating & hydrothermal DAC
▼
With Taro Takahashi, Bassett pioneered laser heating in a DAC: the idea was born in 1966, and in 1968 they converted graphite to diamond with a pulsed ruby laser.[8] The technique was quantified with Ming (1974): 2,000°C sustained, 3,000°C pulsed at 260 kbar. He developed the hydrothermal diamond anvil cell (HDAC) for studying fluids at high pressure. In 2009, he published a comprehensive review of the first 50 years of the DAC, a major historical reference.[5]
⚡
Mikhail I. Eremets
1949–2024, Pinsk (USSR) — Max Planck, Mainz
Polymeric nitrogen • Pressure superconductivity • Max Planck
▼
Trained in Moscow (MEPhI), Eremets worked at the Institute of High Pressure Physics in Troitsk before joining the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz in 2001. His major discoveries: superconductivity in oxygen (1998)[26], polymeric nitrogen cg-N as hard as diamond (2004)[25], transparent sodium ("anti-Wilson transition", 2009), and superconductivity in H₃S at 203 K (2015)[17]. He mentored Alexei Drozdov, lead author of the H₃S discovery. Eremets passed away in 2024 — a tribute was paid by the EHPRG.
☄
Natalia Dubrovinskaia & Leonid Dubrovinsky
University of Bayreuth, Germany
1 TPa record — double-stage nanodiamond DAC
▼
A research duo at the University of Bayreuth, at the Bayerisches Geoinstitut. Natalia leads the Laboratory of Materials Physics and Technology under Extreme Conditions. Their key innovation: using polycrystalline nanodiamond microballs as secondary anvils in a double-stage cell. These balls harden under pressure. In 2016, at the APS (Argonne), they crossed the terapascal (1 TPa = 10 Mbar) for the first time in static mode.[24] In 2015, Leonid Dubrovinsky demonstrated osmium is the least compressible metal at 750 GPa.[29]
🏁
Static pressure records
| Year | Pressure | Authors / Institution | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1905 | ~10 GPa | Bridgman (Harvard) | [1] |
| 1958 | ~3 GPa | Weir, Van Valkenburg et al. (NBS) | [4] |
| 1975–76 | 100 GPa (1 Mbar) | Mao & Bell (Carnegie) | [10] |
| 1984 | 280 GPa (2.8 Mbar) | Bell, Mao, Goettel (Carnegie) | [11] |
| 1990 | 300 GPa | Mao et al. | [31] |
| 2002 | 320 GPa | Loubeyre, Occelli, LeToullec (CEA) | [14] |
| 2018 | 400 GPa | Mao et al. (HPSTAR) | [19] |
| 2016 | 1,000 GPa 1 TPa | Dubrovinskaia, Dubrovinsky et al. (Bayreuth / APS) | [24] |
| 2018 | ~600 GPa | Dewaele, Loubeyre et al. — T-DAC (CEA) | [15] |
| 2020 | 425 GPa metallic H | Loubeyre, Occelli, Dumas (CEA / SOLEIL) | [16] |
| 2026 | 520 GPa spectro | Hilberer, Loubeyre et al. (CEA) | [20] |
🏛
Major laboratories & synchrotrons
ESRF
🏖 Grenoble, France
European synchrotron — HP beamlines: ID15, ID27.
APS
🏎 Argonne, USA
Advanced Photon Source — GSECARS & HPCAT sectors.
SPring-8
🇯🇵 Hyôgo, Japan
World's largest synchrotron (8 GeV) — BL10XU, BL04B1.
SOLEIL
🏖 St-Aubin, France
French synchrotron — PSICHÉ beamline for HP. SOLEIL was the synchrotron used by Loubeyre in 2020.[16]
HPSTAR
🇨🇳 Shanghai, China
Center for HP Science and Technology Advanced Research — directed by Dave Mao.[21]
CEA DAM
🏖 Arpajon / Bruyères-le-Châtel, France
PETRA III / DESY
🇩🇪 Hamburg, Germany
Synchrotron + free electron laser. HP beamlines P02, P07. European HP physics centre, Dubrovinsky site.[24]
NSLS-II
🏎 Brookhaven, New York, USA
National Synchrotron Light Source II — extremely bright X-rays. High-pressure dedicated: XPD, FXI beamlines.
Diamond (UK)
🇬🇧 Harwell, Oxfordshire, UK
UK synchrotron light source — beamline I15 Extreme Conditions dedicated to HP.
Swiss Light Source
🇨🇭 PSI, Villigen, Switzerland
PSI Swiss synchrotron. MS-X04SA (materials) and MX (macromolecules) for HP studies.
SSRF
🇨🇳 Shanghai, China
Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility — BL15U1, BL14W1 beamlines for high pressures.
NSRRC
🇹🇼 Hsinchu, Taiwan
National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center — BL12B2 (ESRF) for HP studies.
BESSY II
🇩🇪 HZB Berlin, Germany
Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin — synchrotron radiation. KMC-3 beamline and HP-DAC studies.
MAX IV
🇸🇪 Lund, Sweden
Swedish synchrotron — 3 GeV, the brightest at its energy. MicroMAX and DanMAX for materials studies.
📚 References
- [1]P.W. Bridgman. The Physics of High Pressure. Bell & Sons, London, 1931.
- [2]Nobel Committee. Nobel Prize in Physics 1946 — P.W. Bridgman. NobelPrize.org, 1946.
- [3]P.W. Bridgman. Biographical — Harvard University. Nat. Acad. Sci. Biogr. Mem., 1970.
- [4]C.E. Weir, E.R. Lippincott, A. Van Valkenburg, E.N. Bunting. Infrared Studies in the 1- to 15-Micron Region to 30,000 Atmospheres. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 63A, 55–62, 1959.
- [5]W.A. Bassett. Diamond anvil cell, 50th birthday. High Press. Res. 29, 163–186, 2009.
- [6]G.J. Piermarini, NIST. High Pressure X-Ray Crystallography With the Diamond Cell at NIST/NBS. J. Res. NIST 106, 889–920, 2001.
- [7]A. Van Valkenburg. Visual observations of high pressure transitions. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 33, 1462, 1962.
- [8]W.A. Bassett. The birth and development of laser heating in diamond anvil cells. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 72, 1270–1272, 2001 · L.C. Ming, W.A. Bassett. Laser heating in the diamond anvil press up to 2000°C sustained and 3000°C pulsed at pressures up to 260 kilobars. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 45, 1115–1118, 1974.
- [9]R.A. Forman, G.J. Piermarini, J.D. Barnett, S. Block. Pressure Measurement Made by the Utilization of Ruby Sharp-Line Luminescence. Science 176, 284–285, 1972.
- [10]H.K. Mao, P.M. Bell. High-Pressure Physics: The 1-Megabar Mark on the Ruby R1 Static Pressure Scale. Science 191, 851–852, 1976.
- [11]P.M. Bell, H.K. Mao, K. Goettel. Ultrahigh Pressure: Beyond 2 Megabars and the Ruby Fluorescence Scale. Science 226, 542–544, 1984.
- [12]H.K. Mao, J. Xu, P.M. Bell. Calibration of the ruby pressure gauge to 800 kbar under quasi-hydrostatic conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 91, 4673–4676, 1986.
- [13]H.K. Mao et al.. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction measurements of hydrogen to 26.5 GPa. Science 239, 1131, 1988.
- [14]P. Loubeyre, F. Occelli, R. LeToullec. Optical studies of solid hydrogen to 320 GPa and evidence for black hydrogen. Nature 416, 613–617, 2002.
- [15]A. Dewaele, P. Loubeyre, F. Occelli, O. Marie, M. Mezouar. Toroidal diamond anvil cell for detailed measurements under extreme static pressures. Nat. Commun. 9, 2913, 2018.
- [16]P. Loubeyre, F. Occelli, P. Dumas. Synchrotron infrared spectroscopic evidence of the transition of hydrogen to its metallic state. Nature 577, 631–635, 2020.
- [17]A.P. Drozdov, M.I. Eremets, I.A. Troyan, V. Ksenofontov, S.I. Shylin. Conventional superconductivity at 203 kelvin at high pressures in the sulfur hydride system. Nature 525, 73–76, 2015.
- [18]M. Somayazulu et al.. Evidence for Superconductivity above 260 K in Lanthanum Superhydride at Megabar Pressures. Phys. Rev. Lett. 122, 027001, 2019.
- [19]B. Li et al.. Diamond anvil cell behavior up to 4 Mbar. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 115, 1713–1717, 2018.
- [20]A. Hilberer, P. Loubeyre et al.. Spectroscopic limits of diamond anvils to 520 GPa and projected bandgap closure. Nat. Commun. (2026), 2026.
- [21]R.J. Hemley, H.K. Mao. Résumé of Research — Balzan Prize. Balzan Foundation, 2005.
- [22]Encyclopædia Britannica. High-pressure phenomena: The diamond anvil cell. Britannica.com, 1998.
- [23]CEA / SOLEIL. Metallic hydrogen observed for the first time ever. CEA press release, 2020.
- [24]N. Dubrovinskaia, L. Dubrovinsky et al. Terapascal static pressure generation with ultrahigh yield strength nanodiamond. Science Advances 2(7), e1600341, 2016.
- [25]M.I. Eremets, A.G. Gavriliuk, I.A. Trojan, D.A. Dzivenko, R. Boehler. Single-bonded cubic form of nitrogen. Nature Materials 3, 558–563, 2004.
- [26]K. Shimizu, K. Suhara, M. Ikumo, M.I. Eremets, K. Amaya. Superconductivity in oxygen. Nature 393, 767–769, 1998.
- [27]R.J. Hemley, H.K. Mao, A.F. Goncharov et al. Synchrotron infrared spectroscopy to 0.15 terapascal. Science 276, 1242, 1997.
- [28]R.J. Hemley, H.K. Mao. Phase transition in solid molecular hydrogen at ultrahigh pressures. Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 857, 1988.
- [29]L. Dubrovinsky, N. Dubrovinskaia et al. The most incompressible metal osmium at static pressures above 750 gigapascals. Nature 525, 226–229, 2015.
- [30]W.A. Bassett. High pressure geochemistry and mineralogy. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 10, 357, 1979.
- [31]H.K. Mao, Y. Wu, L.C. Chen, J.F. Shu, A.P. Jephcoat. Static compression of iron to 300 GPa and Fe0.8Ni0.2 alloy to 260 GPa. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 21737–21742, 1990.
- [32]R.J. Hemley, A.P. Jephcoat, H.K. Mao, C.S. Zha, L.W. Finger, D.E. Cox. Static compression of H2O-ice to 128 GPa (1.28 Mbar). Nature 330, 737–740, 1987.
- [33]P. Loubeyre, R. LeToullec, D. Häusermann, M. Hanfland, R.J. Hemley, H.K. Mao, L.W. Finger. X-ray diffraction and equation of state of hydrogen at megabar pressures. Nature 383, 702–704, 1996.
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